You may not be aware that ‘scientist’ is a made up word. It was created by the Master of Trinity College, Cambridge, England in 1834 by William Whewell as a combination of scientia (latin for knowledge) and artist to describe a cultivator of science. Generally, it takes a generation before a word becomes a regular part of the English lexicon and if it is not used often, another generation before it disappears. I decided to see how many years it took before an Australian writer used it in newspapers, then when a writer used it in fiction in newspapers. It took a surprisingly long time.
I also wanted to take a scientific approach to identifying the exact date that ‘modern’ science fiction was textually born. After all, with invention opera taking up much of the 1850s to 1870s, many without any science explanations, they were little more than unfertilized eggs, waiting for a specific addition to turn the genre into a science fiction zygote, ready to divide into subgenres. While some scholars point to Hugo Gernsback’s labelling and defining science fiction in 1929 as a possible beginning, he was talking about something that had already been born. The true space-time event where modern science fiction began had yet to be determined. Using digital humanities methods, along with my keyclouds, concatenated stories from the To Be Continued database and other techniques, I was able to determine the exact date, in Australian newspapers at least. Finding the word ‘scientist’ was the first step.
To find ‘scientist,’ I used Trove’s online archive of Australian newspapers, bearing in mind that this is not yet a complete collection and that many newspapers even had multiple different editions in the same day, which Trove does not have. Even so, this was a lot harder than I thought it would be. The first problem I encountered was that the optical character recognition software used to convert much of the archives into searchable text was based on a 21st century lexicon. Also, it only OCR’d English and anything that wasn’t English wasn’t translated, instead the OCR software chose the closest English word that looked like the word image. For example, the latin ‘scientium’ was OCRd as scientist. I began correcting several earlier newspaper records on the database that contained poor OCR that had replaced various words with ‘scientist’ including ‘scientific’ , ‘permitted’ , ‘scenist’ , and misspellings of ‘socialist’, before realising there were actually thousands. A researcher with more time might wish to correct the record, or wait until Trove does a new OCR that uses a lexicon of words from the early 19th century.
However, after looking through about 250 newspaper images, I was able to find the first ‘real’ printed use of the word ‘scientist’ in a two page article in The Victorian Farmers Journal and Gardeners Chronicle (Melbourne) entitled The Philosophy of Farming by W.M. Sydney Gibbons, 13 July 1861. However, this paper was mainly bought by farmers. So, the word ‘scientist’ wouldn’t have gained traction yet with this article.https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/189634817?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22 Even so, 1834 to 1861? A generation!
The second use was 5 Apr 1869 in an article called The Origin of Meteors on how the sun has a tail of meteors that the Earth passes through, concluding that the sun is really a comet about to leave the solar system and ending with ‘Let interested scientists speak out.’ Reprinted from Scientific American. Great to know that Scientific American was already using ‘scientist’ but this doesn’t count for me as it wasn’t a journalist from the The Sydney Morning Herald using it.
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/28420763?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
Finally, ‘scientist’ was used in a popular newspaper in a relevant column that was interesting to Melbourne city people in The Argus 31 Dec 1869. A fascinating piece reporting that:
The “Index of Patents,” covering a period of nearly twelve years, from August, 1854, to December, 1866, issued by the registrar-general at the commencement of 1868, should have comprised the titles of nearly one thousand patents, granted or applied for during that interval.
The article goes on to say that the Government Gazette later reported 300-400 applications since then. This is evidence that inventing has taken over from gold digging with many Australians leaving the gold fields at the time, signifying an ‘invention rush’. The Invention Rush of the 1860s replaced the Gold Rush of the 1850s. While the Gold Rush continued at various places across Australia until the 1890s, it had already ended in the 1860s in Victoria. With there already being patent agents in Melbourne, The Invention Rush was well established by this time, so it is perfect for the word ‘scientist’ to be used in an article that establishes a notable time in Australia’s history.
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/5809479?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
However…
It is used in a way that indicates it is still a new word. Here’s the exact sentence:
Now, it appears from the index above referred to, that machinery and processes applicable to both these objects, have been patented by the score, and in several instances by men of recognised ability and standing as chemists, engineers, and “scientists,” to borrow an American neologism. (Quotes around scientists in the original.)
This suggests that the writer reads Scientific America, not being aware that the origin of the word scientist was in the UK https://www.npr.org/2010/05/21/127037417/how-the-word-scientist-came-to-be
It is surprising that it took almost 30 years to appear in an Australian newspaper and another 9 years to be used again.
‘Scientist’ began to be used as a regular part of the English language in Australian newspapers from 1870 onwards. Here are some I found via the Trove newspaper archive. There are other occurrences I didn’t list here which are later syndicated copies of these articles.
1870:
In a sarcastic sentence: https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/148016201?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
In discussing electricity:
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/148018505?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
In discussing the formation of a second moon:
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/189961301?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
Discovery of the fossil of an ancient water monster (probably a plesiosaur). Reprinted from Washoe News
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/13212852?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
In describing how eating butter is bad for the complexion:
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/27264615?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
1871
In a letter about spiritism
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/39681204?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
Began to appear regularly in the Scientific Notes column
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/70466323?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
Report on a spectroscope
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/13239433?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
Commentary on the Chicago Post
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/207698185?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
Another article on Spiritism
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/244810308?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
A comment about penny lectures
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/27267538?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
A reprint from the New York Herald about Creedless Religions
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/123763066?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
A satirical letter complaining about the editor
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/174542581?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
An article reprinted from the Philadelphia Evening Telegraph on a lady poisoner.
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/129964112?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
Then, I found this. The first significant evidence of the use of ‘scientist’ in an Australian newspaper in art rather than article – a poem!
Finis coronat—CANTUARIUS,
In uniform that seemeth various,
In stately sort at sound of gun
Proclaims the session’s work is done;
The last hand played, extrema manus,
And now we close the gates of JANUS.
The little lordlings had their strut
And fret before the House was shut
Headed by JACK, the whilom great,
Now shrunk to lean and slippered state;
His voice that once bold views could gripe
Turning again to childish pipe.
All which presentiment affords
We soon shall do without those lords.
The next important thing we have
To talk about is Madame ZAV-
ISTOWSKI, with her copia fandi,
And parasol so very handy.
‘Twas so whipcordy, sporting, turfy,
That whipping dealt to Mr. MURPHY;
And so to Madame’s fame redounds
This bloodless fight in gentle rounds,
That some have got it in their heads
The gent arranged it with the Zeds
Beforehand, business-like and square—
I dinna ken, and dinna care.
The Speaker’s feast—ah! did you get
A card to caper in the wet;
To share the gallant Captain’s cheer
While thunder turned the cream and beer;
To dance beneath the pluvial flood,
Or croquet midst unkindly mud.
Pray did you swell the happy list?
If not, you don’t know what you missed.
Some artful scientist asserts
We’re treading on a comet’s skirts,
Just flustering his train of sparks,
And such like astronomic larks.
But what the fiery shower is made of,
And if ’tis aught to be afraid of
We cannot say, and none explains,
And so we shan’t disturb our brains;
To this conclusion we are hurled,
‘Tis just the way of this here world.
The mail! the mail! where is the mail?
Is thirteen times a year the tale,
‘Tis really time that we should shape
A wire from here to Leuwin’s Cape,
By which the monthly budget summing,
They’d ring a bell to say they’re coming.
And when the signal tone rings round,
We’ll cry, hark, there’s King GEORGE’S sound!
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/174542847?searchTerm=%22%20scientist%20%22
(Many thanks to the ‘voluntrove’ who corrected the text of that poem.)
After this, ‘scientist’ was regularly used in Australian newspapers, signifying that 1871 was the year that it was accepted into the mainstream, in Australia at least. It is interesting that 1871 is also the year ‘scientist’ was used in a literary work.
What I wanted to determine was whether I could pinpoint the exact date in science fiction publishing when invention opera turned into recognisable 20th century science fiction. When did this happen? What could define this shift textually? I determined that the shift happened when the word ‘scientist’ first appeared in invention fiction to describe one of the main characters who had created multiple inventions that drive or contribute to the narrative. This means that a story just with an inventor or a professor isn’t really representing science fiction, especially considering characters can be a professor of anything and inventors don’t necessarily come up with anything truly advanced or world-changing. But to have a scientist as a lead character speaking about plausible prophetic science and their inventions in detail elevates the science of the story, and is the main feature that distinguishes science fiction stories from non science fiction stories.
Again, it took awhile. In the meantime, ‘scientist’ had to become familiar to readers of other genres.
In 1878, ‘scientist’ was used in romance fiction in the story Vixen, a New Woman story. https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/882596
The second was A Modern Minister of the Domestic genre
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/143273771
Then there was Shamus-Na-Giera, an historical romance
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/170440635
Various stories followed from 1879 with ‘scientist’ being used to add authority to a line, or as a description for a love interest, but it wasn’t until 1886 that ‘scientist’ appeared in stories that are getting closer to modern science fiction. It was used in the satirical allegorical story, The Hen’s Language, which featured a scientist called Dr. Polyglot Syntax (!) who wanted to remove all his teeth so that he could talk with hens. Discussions of science and dentistry. The story ends with Polyglot finding that the hens had lied and taken advantage of his kindness so he ordered all their deaths, one a day, as he planned to eat them one by one. Being allegorical, satirical and even introduced as a tale, I can’t say it counts as science fiction as talking animals is a fantasy or fairy tale trope. You might have a different opinion. Check it out here: https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/160173353/18917981
The earliest use of scientist in spiritualist fiction which discussed parallel realities was a story taken from the American Cornhill magazine and reprinted in the Weekly Times Melbourne – An Advance Sheet https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/220467812
The earliest use of scientist in crime fiction was in a broken story in the Daily Telegraph in 1887. I say broken as the story Little Tu’penny was interrupted with parts of A Strange Testimony before continuing with the story. A better version of A Strange Testimony is in 1888 in Border Watch: https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/77500922
But the most science fiction like story featuring both the words ‘scientist’ and ‘invention’ as well as scientific explanations and multiple inventions, is Herbert D. Ward’s A Dash to the Pole which was printed in the Leader in 4 June 1892, later released as a novel in 1895 (using 1892 as the original copyright date in the books)
https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/197974049
As the first fiction published in newspapers in Australia featuring the use of the word ‘scientist’ along with more that one fictional invention, with the inventions helping rather than being the driving force of the narrative, this story represents the modern science fiction story and indicates a move away from the Invention Opera period. While Invention Opera continued, ‘scientist’ was used more often from this point, thereby cementing ‘science’ and fiction together, indicating that the start of modern hard science fiction, along with what we recognise as hard science fiction textual markers, began in Australia on Saturday 4th June 1892. A Dash to the Pole was first serialised in the Pittsburg Dispatch starting 3rd April 1892. Some sketches of the airship here: https://skepticversustheflyingsaucers.blogspot.com/2014/01/cracking-189697-airships-mystery-toward_11.html
And what about an Australian science fiction story? When was the first story to feature both the words ‘scientist’ and ‘invention’ as well as a scientist with his inventions? Incredibly enough, it was 8 years later. The World’s Last Wonder first mentions scientists in Chapter VII. While these were not the main scientists that drove the narrative, they did invent within the story and ended up being assistant characters by the end of the story. So, not only is this story invention opera and planetary fiction, it’s also the first modern Australian space opera science fiction. The first chapter was published 14 Feb 1901, indicating that 1901 is the birth year of modern science fiction in Australia. It now being released via Vintage Sci Fi Podcast.
Of course, as my collection of concatenated stories from the To Be Continued Database is not complete, and Trove’s store of newspapers is not complete, and I’m only focusing on newspapers, and I can only search in individual articles for the existence of these two words on Trove anyway, it’s possible a novel containing both ‘scientist’ and ‘invention,’ with a scientist giving scientific explanations and creating multiple inventions that drive the narrative, came out before 1901 in Australia and before 1892 in the USA. If you know it, leave a comment in the box below.
